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<p>Springs in the Sirmaur district of the North-Western Himalayas are vital freshwater sources; however, systematic, multi-seasonal data on their physicochemical quality, trace metal concentrations, and land use influences remain scarce. Thirty springs were assessed over 2 years (2021–2023) for physicochemical and heavy metal parameters, seasonal variations, and land use impacts using multivariate statistical methods. Water was neutral to mildly alkaline (pH 6.97–8.06) with moderate mineralization. Calcium and magnesium occasionally exceeded BIS standards, reflecting geogenic inputs from carbonate- and dolomite-rich formations. Lead exceeded permissible limits in both pre- and post-monsoon seasons (up to 0.0163&#xa0;mg L⁻<sup>1</sup>), and iron exceeded limits during pre-monsoon (up to 0.3004&#xa0;mg L⁻<sup>1</sup>), indicating localized anthropogenic and lithological influences. Water Quality Index (WQI) classified overall quality as “Good” (pre-monsoon 36.26; post-monsoon 37.63), with forested catchments consistently superior. A significant difference (<i>p</i> &lt; 0.05) between agricultural and settlement springs during pre-monsoon indicates enhanced contaminant transport under low-flow conditions. Spearman correlation showed positive associations between pH and Ca, Zn, and Mn, reflecting mineral weathering. Principal component analysis (PCA) distinguished regional geogenic controls from site-specific anomalies shaped by land use and lithology. The study provides a comprehensive, data-driven understanding of spring water quality dynamics, offering insights for springshed management, pollution mitigation, and sustainable water resource planning in Himalayan headwaters.</p>

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Water quality characteristics and controlling factors of springs in Sirmaur district, North-Western Himalayas, India: a multivariate assessment

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年2月7日

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  • Amita Sharma,
  • Satish Kumar Bhardwaj,
  • Neelam Sidhu,
  • Kiran Soni,
  • Pooja Sharma

摘要

Springs in the Sirmaur district of the North-Western Himalayas are vital freshwater sources; however, systematic, multi-seasonal data on their physicochemical quality, trace metal concentrations, and land use influences remain scarce. Thirty springs were assessed over 2 years (2021–2023) for physicochemical and heavy metal parameters, seasonal variations, and land use impacts using multivariate statistical methods. Water was neutral to mildly alkaline (pH 6.97–8.06) with moderate mineralization. Calcium and magnesium occasionally exceeded BIS standards, reflecting geogenic inputs from carbonate- and dolomite-rich formations. Lead exceeded permissible limits in both pre- and post-monsoon seasons (up to 0.0163 mg L⁻1), and iron exceeded limits during pre-monsoon (up to 0.3004 mg L⁻1), indicating localized anthropogenic and lithological influences. Water Quality Index (WQI) classified overall quality as “Good” (pre-monsoon 36.26; post-monsoon 37.63), with forested catchments consistently superior. A significant difference (p < 0.05) between agricultural and settlement springs during pre-monsoon indicates enhanced contaminant transport under low-flow conditions. Spearman correlation showed positive associations between pH and Ca, Zn, and Mn, reflecting mineral weathering. Principal component analysis (PCA) distinguished regional geogenic controls from site-specific anomalies shaped by land use and lithology. The study provides a comprehensive, data-driven understanding of spring water quality dynamics, offering insights for springshed management, pollution mitigation, and sustainable water resource planning in Himalayan headwaters.