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<p>Groundwater is a significant source of drinking and irrigation water globally, particularly in semi-arid and densely populated regions where surface water is limited. This study assesses the hydrochemistry and potability of 620 groundwater samples for 4 seasons (2017–2019) in 82 villages of the Rohtak district, Haryana, India. The study area is characterized by intense agricultural activities, making it highly susceptible to groundwater contamination. Groundwater qualities for drinking and irrigation purposes were evaluated along with health risk (i.e., carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic) assessments. Multivariate statistical analyses, including principal component analysis-biplot (PCA-biplot) and correlation matrix, were used to identify contamination sources and their link to bore well depth. The average water quality index (WQI) indicated poor water quality in all 4 seasons, with a range of 113.3–178.2. Heavy metal pollution index (HPI), heavy metal evaluation index (HEI), and degree of&#xa0;contamination (C<sub>d</sub>) were 38.8–59.8, 3.0–4.9, and 0.22–1.26, respectively, in all seasons, suggesting low to moderate heavy metal contamination. Average fluoride, total hardness, sulfate, iron, aluminum, and magnesium frequently exceeded permissible limits in groundwater samples, with exceedance rates of 52.3%, 53%, 39%, 38.4%, 31.8%, and 36%, respectively. The chlorinity index suggests maximum groundwater samples are in class I, followed by class II. Based on the Kelly Index (KI), 7.8% of pre-monsoon and 12.8% of post-monsoon samples were unsuitable for irrigation (KI &gt; 1). Groundwater fluoride concentrations in a few villages of Rohtak exceeded 10&#xa0;mg/L. Cauliflower leaf biochar (CLBC) was prepared and used for aqueous fluoride removal. The Langmuir monolayer sorption capacity of CLBC for fluoride was 4.45&#xa0;mg/g (25&#xa0;°C). Nine groundwater samples with fluoride concentrations of 4.0 − 10.5&#xa0;mg/L&#xa0;(&gt; 1.5&#xa0;mg/L BIS limit) collected from the study area were successfully treated using cauliflower leaf biochar. These findings suggest the need for regular groundwater monitoring, assessment and remediation to safeguard public health. In summary, this study integrates spatio-temporal hydrochemistry, health risk assessment, and biochar-based water defluoridation within a unified framework.</p>

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Comprehensive spatio-temporal assessment of groundwater hydrochemistry and sustainable defluoridation in a semi-arid region

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年8月4日

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  • Kamal Kishor,
  • Abhishek Kumar Chaubey,
  • Dinesh Mohan

摘要

Groundwater is a significant source of drinking and irrigation water globally, particularly in semi-arid and densely populated regions where surface water is limited. This study assesses the hydrochemistry and potability of 620 groundwater samples for 4 seasons (2017–2019) in 82 villages of the Rohtak district, Haryana, India. The study area is characterized by intense agricultural activities, making it highly susceptible to groundwater contamination. Groundwater qualities for drinking and irrigation purposes were evaluated along with health risk (i.e., carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic) assessments. Multivariate statistical analyses, including principal component analysis-biplot (PCA-biplot) and correlation matrix, were used to identify contamination sources and their link to bore well depth. The average water quality index (WQI) indicated poor water quality in all 4 seasons, with a range of 113.3–178.2. Heavy metal pollution index (HPI), heavy metal evaluation index (HEI), and degree of contamination (Cd) were 38.8–59.8, 3.0–4.9, and 0.22–1.26, respectively, in all seasons, suggesting low to moderate heavy metal contamination. Average fluoride, total hardness, sulfate, iron, aluminum, and magnesium frequently exceeded permissible limits in groundwater samples, with exceedance rates of 52.3%, 53%, 39%, 38.4%, 31.8%, and 36%, respectively. The chlorinity index suggests maximum groundwater samples are in class I, followed by class II. Based on the Kelly Index (KI), 7.8% of pre-monsoon and 12.8% of post-monsoon samples were unsuitable for irrigation (KI > 1). Groundwater fluoride concentrations in a few villages of Rohtak exceeded 10 mg/L. Cauliflower leaf biochar (CLBC) was prepared and used for aqueous fluoride removal. The Langmuir monolayer sorption capacity of CLBC for fluoride was 4.45 mg/g (25 °C). Nine groundwater samples with fluoride concentrations of 4.0 − 10.5 mg/L (> 1.5 mg/L BIS limit) collected from the study area were successfully treated using cauliflower leaf biochar. These findings suggest the need for regular groundwater monitoring, assessment and remediation to safeguard public health. In summary, this study integrates spatio-temporal hydrochemistry, health risk assessment, and biochar-based water defluoridation within a unified framework.