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<p>The spatial variability of groundwater quality in Kerala, driven by anthropogenic activities and saline intrusion, poses a significant environmental challenge. This study conducts a comprehensive hydrogeochemical analysis of 342 groundwater samples from 14 districts of Kerala, using 13 parameters from Central Groundwater Board data. Multivariate techniques, including Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Karl Pearson’s Correlation, alongside Piper and Schoeller diagrams, were employed to identify the various geochemical processes and dominant hydrochemical facies. PCA attributes 67.62% of variance to geogenic and anthropogenic factors. Elevated nitrate concentrations (max: 153&#xa0;mg/L) indicate dominant anthropogenic influences, whereas fluoride levels (max: 2&#xa0;mg/L) largely reflect geogenic controls on groundwater chemistry. Results indicate that groundwater pH ranges from 3.79 to 9.85, reflecting acidic to alkaline conditions, with electrical conductivity (29–2996 µS/cm) suggesting low salt enrichment. Dominant cations (Na⁺, Ca<sup>2</sup>⁺) and anions (HCO₃⁻, Cl⁻) reveal Ca–HCO<sub>3</sub> and mixed Ca. Na-HCO<sub>3</sub> as prevalent facies, driven by carbonate and silicate weathering. Health Risk Assessment indicated that adults constitute the most vulnerable group based on the cumulative Total Hazard Index (THI), with values ranging from 0.01 to 4.35, followed by children (0.01–4.17) and infants (0.005–1.78). The findings of the study will guide policymakers in addressing Kerala's groundwater quality crisis and developing sustainable remediation strategies.</p> Graphical abstract <p></p>

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Statewide hydrogeochemical assessment of groundwater in Kerala using multivariate analysis: health risk implications of fluoride and nitrate

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年5月16日

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  • Sethulakshmi Jayaprakash,
  • Sarath Chandra Pragada,
  • Karthikeyan Perumal

摘要

The spatial variability of groundwater quality in Kerala, driven by anthropogenic activities and saline intrusion, poses a significant environmental challenge. This study conducts a comprehensive hydrogeochemical analysis of 342 groundwater samples from 14 districts of Kerala, using 13 parameters from Central Groundwater Board data. Multivariate techniques, including Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Karl Pearson’s Correlation, alongside Piper and Schoeller diagrams, were employed to identify the various geochemical processes and dominant hydrochemical facies. PCA attributes 67.62% of variance to geogenic and anthropogenic factors. Elevated nitrate concentrations (max: 153 mg/L) indicate dominant anthropogenic influences, whereas fluoride levels (max: 2 mg/L) largely reflect geogenic controls on groundwater chemistry. Results indicate that groundwater pH ranges from 3.79 to 9.85, reflecting acidic to alkaline conditions, with electrical conductivity (29–2996 µS/cm) suggesting low salt enrichment. Dominant cations (Na⁺, Ca2⁺) and anions (HCO₃⁻, Cl⁻) reveal Ca–HCO3 and mixed Ca. Na-HCO3 as prevalent facies, driven by carbonate and silicate weathering. Health Risk Assessment indicated that adults constitute the most vulnerable group based on the cumulative Total Hazard Index (THI), with values ranging from 0.01 to 4.35, followed by children (0.01–4.17) and infants (0.005–1.78). The findings of the study will guide policymakers in addressing Kerala's groundwater quality crisis and developing sustainable remediation strategies.

Graphical abstract