Multi-model exploration of groundwater quality and potential health risk assessment in Jajpur district, Eastern India

The presence of fluoride and nitrate is a serious groundwater quality issue in India impacting human health. In the present study, 14 different hydrochemical parameters for 76 groundwater samples collected from the Jajpur district of Odisha, India, were evaluated. Entropy-weighted water quality index (EWQI), fixed-weight groundwater quality index (GWQI), principal component analysis (PCA), and rotated factor loading-based water quality index (PCWQI) were employed to assess groundwater quality. About 65.79 ± 4.68%, 33.55 ± 3.95%, and 0.66 ± 0.76% of the samples were rated as “excellent,” “good,” or “medium” quality, respectively, across the four different water quality indices, with a nominal rating discrepancy of 13.15%. Though 86% of samples consistently received excellent or good ratings across all WQI frameworks, concentrations of F⁻ and NO₃⁻ in 36.8% and 11.84% of the samples exceeded the WHO permissible limit. In health risk assessment, about 38.15% of samples surpassed the F⁻ hazard quotient (HQ > 1) posing non-carcinogenic health risks for children. The non-carcinogenic health risks due to NO₃⁻ were evident in 55.26% and 11.84% of samples for children and adults, respectively. The higher concentration of NO₃⁻ in some of the water samples, together with its positive correlation with HCO₃⁻, may worsen groundwater pollution. The moderate correlation between Ca²⁺ and HCO₃⁻ (r = 0.410) and the insignificant correlation between Mg²⁺ and HCO₃⁻ (r = 0.234) suggests calcite dissolution is far more common than dolomite.