Applying the Gollin effect to design VR for stargazing, and exploring the correlates between participants’ VR self-efficacy, interest, frustration, flow experience and learning outcomes

Stellar observation, encompassing the study of star formation, stellar properties, and the governing physical laws, presents a readily accessible topic for many learners; however, many stargazing beginners may find it challenging. By applying the supplemental Gollin effect within animated display and the haptic effect of game-like play with a remote controller joystick, we designed an immersive Virtual Reality (IVR) game named Stargazing-Fun for participants to locate stars with different levels of brightness and to draw lines between stars to form constellations. To understand the learning effect of this IVR design, visitors to an Astronomical Museum were invited to take part in an experiment, during which the learning effectiveness of IVR-Stargazing-Fun was examined by conducting pre- and post-tests and administering a questionnaire related to IVR self-efficacy, learning interest, IVR frustration, and flow experience. A total of 213 useful data were subjected to structural equation modeling. The results of this study indicated that IVR self-efficacy was positively related to learning interest, but negatively related to IVR frustration; flow experience could be positively predicted by learning interest, but negatively predicted by IVR frustration; and flow experience could positively predict learning outcome. Besides, comparing the pretest and posttest, the results showed learning progress in IVR practice. Results imply that the Gollin effect can be applied to VR designs for beginner of stargazing.