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<p>Historic masonry pagoda walls are vulnerable to earthquake damage due to weak mortar joints and geometric discontinuities. This study investigates the seismic damage evolution and failure-mechanism transition of a representative wall segment of the Small Wild Goose Pagoda using a calibrated three-dimensional micro-finite element model. Masonry components are described by a damage-plasticity model, while brick–mortar interfaces are explicitly represented by cohesive elements. The model reproduces the experimental peak lateral resistance with an error of less than 3%. Quasi-static and dynamic analyses indicate that the dominant response shifts from distributed flexural–shear cracking to localised interface sliding near the wall base under the selected earthquake inputs. The proportion of interface-slip energy dissipated in the bottom zone increases from 42% under quasi-static loading to 58% and 72% under dynamic inputs of 0.3&#xa0;g and 0.6&#xa0;g, respectively. Among the five damage indices examined, the deformation–energy-based index shows the closest correspondence with crack propagation, interface degradation, stiffness loss, and lateral-resistance deterioration, and is therefore used to define performance states. Within the investigated parameter range, the opening ratio has the most pronounced influence on vulnerability: increasing the opening ratio from 0% to 13% reduces the displacement required to reach the severe-damage threshold from 9.6 to 7.5&#xa0;mm. Smaller height-to-width ratios promote shear-dominated degradation and bed-joint sliding, whereas vertical compressive stress exhibits a non-monotonic effect. The proposed framework links interface-scale damage mechanisms with global performance degradation and supports conservation-oriented seismic assessment of historic masonry pagoda walls.</p>

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Interface-slip localization and vulnerability amplification in historic masonry pagoda walls under seismic loading

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年7月30日

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  • Dunfeng Xu,
  • Anxin Yang,
  • Yexue Li,
  • Shengwei Li

摘要

Historic masonry pagoda walls are vulnerable to earthquake damage due to weak mortar joints and geometric discontinuities. This study investigates the seismic damage evolution and failure-mechanism transition of a representative wall segment of the Small Wild Goose Pagoda using a calibrated three-dimensional micro-finite element model. Masonry components are described by a damage-plasticity model, while brick–mortar interfaces are explicitly represented by cohesive elements. The model reproduces the experimental peak lateral resistance with an error of less than 3%. Quasi-static and dynamic analyses indicate that the dominant response shifts from distributed flexural–shear cracking to localised interface sliding near the wall base under the selected earthquake inputs. The proportion of interface-slip energy dissipated in the bottom zone increases from 42% under quasi-static loading to 58% and 72% under dynamic inputs of 0.3 g and 0.6 g, respectively. Among the five damage indices examined, the deformation–energy-based index shows the closest correspondence with crack propagation, interface degradation, stiffness loss, and lateral-resistance deterioration, and is therefore used to define performance states. Within the investigated parameter range, the opening ratio has the most pronounced influence on vulnerability: increasing the opening ratio from 0% to 13% reduces the displacement required to reach the severe-damage threshold from 9.6 to 7.5 mm. Smaller height-to-width ratios promote shear-dominated degradation and bed-joint sliding, whereas vertical compressive stress exhibits a non-monotonic effect. The proposed framework links interface-scale damage mechanisms with global performance degradation and supports conservation-oriented seismic assessment of historic masonry pagoda walls.