On the formation of super-Jupiters: core accretion or gravitational instability?

The Core Accretion model is widely accepted as the primary mechanism for forming planets up to a few Jupiter masses. However, the formation of super-massive planets remains a subject of debate, as their formation via the Core Accretion model requires super-solar metallicities. Assuming stellar atmospheric abundances reflect the composition of protoplanetary disks, and that disk mass scales linearly with stellar mass, we calculated the total amount of metals in planet-building materials that could contribute to the formation of massive planets. In this work, we studied a sample of 172 Jupiter-mass planets and 93 planets with masses exceeding 4 $M_{♃}$ $M_{\jupiter}$ . Our results consistently demonstrate that planets with masses above 4 $M_{♃}$ $M_{\jupiter}$ form in disks with at least as much metal content as those hosting planets with masses between 1 and 4 $M_{♃}$ $M_{\jupiter}$ , often with slightly higher metallicity, typically exceeding that of the proto-solar disk. We interpret this as strong evidence that the formation of very massive Jupiters is feasible through Core Accretion and encourage planet formation modelers to test our observational conclusions.