Ecosystem services from rain water harvesting, agroforestry and livestock based smallholder rain-fed integrated farming system

Ensuring double cropping, securing livelihood and restoring ecosystem are the major challenges under rain-fed smallholder farming situation. A study was undertaken during 2013–2021 for smallholders through integrating rain water harvesting, crops, trees and livestock to estimate the multiple benefits to farmers and ecosystem under rain-fed situation. One hectare rain-fed integrated farming system (IFS) model comprising of farm pond, food crops, fodder crops, agrihortipasture, silvipasture, boundary plantation and livestock was evaluated on-station for various ecosystem services potential (provisioning, supporting, regulating and cultural) and also promoted on-farm. The smallholder rain-fed integrated farming system (IFS) produced total 5926 kg ha⁻¹ chickpea equivalent yield and multiple provisioning services including grains, fruits, straw, green fodder, milk, meat, fuel-wood, etc. The model recorded 1327.4 US$ ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ net returns with 1.6 benefit cost ratio and resulted round-the-year supply of income (US$ 141 to 509 every month) to the farmer. It generated 204 man-days ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ employment. The regulating services resulted from the IFS were improved soil fertility (39 and 22% more soil organic carbon in 0–15 and 15–30 cm soil layer, respectively), better infiltration rate, higher carbon stock (31.5%) with 1.36 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹carbon sequestration rate. The rain-fed IFS provided supporting ecosystem services in the form of improved soil biodiversity (earthworm and microbial count) and nutrient (41.4 kg N, 18.7 kg P and 33.2 kg K ha⁻¹ year⁻¹) and by-product recycling [8.16 tonnes farmyard manure (FYM) and 1.13 tonnes farm-compost] besides providing many cultural services. The results highlighted that synergistic integration of rain water harvesting-crops-trees-livestock provides multiple ecosystem services and benefits that leads to sustainable food systems under rain-fed agro-ecosystems.