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<p>Türkiye is a&#xa0;water-stressed country with approximately 1313 m<sup>3</sup> of renewable freshwater per capita per year, where agriculture accounts for nearly 77% of total water use. Existing water footprint studies are generally aggregated at basin or provincial scales, limiting their ability to resolve climatic heterogeneity across Anatolia. This study quantifies green and blue water footprints and virtual water exports of Türkiye’s three major export-oriented fruit crops—mandarin (<i>Citrus reticulata</i>), apple (<i>Malus domestica</i>), and grape (<i>Vitis vinifera</i>)—for 2019–2023 using a&#xa0;climate-zone-based framework to support sustainable irrigation and export planning. Daily meteorological data from 259 stations were aggregated into decadal intervals and analyzed across 29 agro-climatic zones using Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) CLIMWAT and CROPWAT&#xa0;8.0. Reference evapotranspiration was calculated using the FAO Penman–Monteith equation and effective precipitation using the United States Department of Agriculture–Soil Conservation Service (USDA-SCS) method. Crop water use was partitioned into green and blue components, while grey water was excluded. The analysis was restricted to fruit-bearing orchards, and results were aggregated across administrative scales while preserving climatic variability. Mean water footprints were 82 ± 13 m<sup>3</sup>&#xa0;t⁻<sup>1</sup> for mandarin (~57% blue), 94 ± 9 m<sup>3</sup>&#xa0;t⁻<sup>1</sup> for apple (~80% blue), and 786 ± 76 m<sup>3</sup>&#xa0;t⁻<sup>1</sup> for grape (~85% blue). Total virtual water exports were approximately 350, 587, and 2710 Mm<sup>3</sup>, respectively. Strong spatial variability was observed, with green water contributions ranging from 5–12 m<sup>3</sup>&#xa0;t⁻<sup>1</sup> in arid regions to 140–200 m<sup>3</sup>&#xa0;t⁻<sup>1</sup> in humid zones, while blue water demand in eastern regions exceeded global benchmarks by up to fivefold. Overall, the results highlight pronounced regional disparities in agricultural water use and emphasize the need for spatially differentiated water management strategies, including crop zoning, irrigation optimization, and integration of water scarcity indicators into export policy.</p>

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High-Resolution Water Footprint and Virtual Water Trade Analysis of Export-Oriented Fruit Production in Türkiye

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年6月2日

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  • Serhat Yilmaz,
  • Ilker Angin,
  • Bahar Kocaman

摘要

Türkiye is a water-stressed country with approximately 1313 m3 of renewable freshwater per capita per year, where agriculture accounts for nearly 77% of total water use. Existing water footprint studies are generally aggregated at basin or provincial scales, limiting their ability to resolve climatic heterogeneity across Anatolia. This study quantifies green and blue water footprints and virtual water exports of Türkiye’s three major export-oriented fruit crops—mandarin (Citrus reticulata), apple (Malus domestica), and grape (Vitis vinifera)—for 2019–2023 using a climate-zone-based framework to support sustainable irrigation and export planning. Daily meteorological data from 259 stations were aggregated into decadal intervals and analyzed across 29 agro-climatic zones using Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) CLIMWAT and CROPWAT 8.0. Reference evapotranspiration was calculated using the FAO Penman–Monteith equation and effective precipitation using the United States Department of Agriculture–Soil Conservation Service (USDA-SCS) method. Crop water use was partitioned into green and blue components, while grey water was excluded. The analysis was restricted to fruit-bearing orchards, and results were aggregated across administrative scales while preserving climatic variability. Mean water footprints were 82 ± 13 m3 t⁻1 for mandarin (~57% blue), 94 ± 9 m3 t⁻1 for apple (~80% blue), and 786 ± 76 m3 t⁻1 for grape (~85% blue). Total virtual water exports were approximately 350, 587, and 2710 Mm3, respectively. Strong spatial variability was observed, with green water contributions ranging from 5–12 m3 t⁻1 in arid regions to 140–200 m3 t⁻1 in humid zones, while blue water demand in eastern regions exceeded global benchmarks by up to fivefold. Overall, the results highlight pronounced regional disparities in agricultural water use and emphasize the need for spatially differentiated water management strategies, including crop zoning, irrigation optimization, and integration of water scarcity indicators into export policy.