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<p>Oil contamination of coastal sandy ecosystems presents a persistent environmental threat, particularly in regions with intensive petroleum industry activities such as the Persian Gulf. Current remediation strategies often involve high costs, ecological side effects, or inefficiency in treating tightly bound hydrocarbons. This study addresses the need for efficient and economically viable cleanup methods by evaluating three innovative treatment approaches for diesel-contaminated beach sand from the Delvar coastline in Bushehr Province, Iran. The methods investigated were standalone electrochemical oxidation, nano-bubble washing using seawater, and a combined sequential treatment. A pilot-scale reactor system utilizing TiO₂-coated titanium and graphene electrodes, coupled with a Venturi-type nano-bubble generator, was employed. The operating conditions include 3, 6.5, and 10&#xa0;V while the reaction time was set at 15, 58, and 100&#xa0;min. Process optimization was conducted using Response Surface Methodology (RSM), with validation through machine learning models. The key findings indicate that electrochemical treatment achieved the highest oil removal efficiency of 93.44% under optimal parameters (15% oil-to-sand ratio, 10&#xa0;V, 100&#xa0;min), with performance well described by a significant quadratic model (R<sup>2</sup> = 0.9931). The best model&#xa0;is&#xa0;Random Forest, with performance metrics of R<sup>2</sup> = 0.92, RMSE = 0.14, and MAE = 0.09. Nano-bubble treatment provided a considerably lower-cost alternative, achieving 87.06% removal efficiency. The combined method yielded only a marginal improvement (93.87%) over electrochemical treatment alone, suggesting limited additive benefit. Crucially, energy consumption analysis revealed a dramatic cost differential: nano-bubble treatment operated at approximately 2.2&#xa0;US$/ton of sand, compared to US$27.83 &amp; US$29.9/ton of sand, for the energy-intensive electrochemical and combined processes. This research demonstrates that while electrochemical methods offer superior cleanup performance, nano-bubble technology represents a highly cost-effective solution for large-scale applications where regulatory targets permit slightly lower efficiency, thereby offering a practical decision-making framework for sustainable shoreline restoration.</p> Graphical Abstract <p></p>

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Integrated electrochemical and nano-bubble remediation of oil-contaminated beach sand: a comparative study of efficiency, energy, and cost

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年4月9日

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  • A. R. Karbassi,
  • A. R. Habibifard,
  • S. Tahery

摘要

Oil contamination of coastal sandy ecosystems presents a persistent environmental threat, particularly in regions with intensive petroleum industry activities such as the Persian Gulf. Current remediation strategies often involve high costs, ecological side effects, or inefficiency in treating tightly bound hydrocarbons. This study addresses the need for efficient and economically viable cleanup methods by evaluating three innovative treatment approaches for diesel-contaminated beach sand from the Delvar coastline in Bushehr Province, Iran. The methods investigated were standalone electrochemical oxidation, nano-bubble washing using seawater, and a combined sequential treatment. A pilot-scale reactor system utilizing TiO₂-coated titanium and graphene electrodes, coupled with a Venturi-type nano-bubble generator, was employed. The operating conditions include 3, 6.5, and 10 V while the reaction time was set at 15, 58, and 100 min. Process optimization was conducted using Response Surface Methodology (RSM), with validation through machine learning models. The key findings indicate that electrochemical treatment achieved the highest oil removal efficiency of 93.44% under optimal parameters (15% oil-to-sand ratio, 10 V, 100 min), with performance well described by a significant quadratic model (R2 = 0.9931). The best model is Random Forest, with performance metrics of R2 = 0.92, RMSE = 0.14, and MAE = 0.09. Nano-bubble treatment provided a considerably lower-cost alternative, achieving 87.06% removal efficiency. The combined method yielded only a marginal improvement (93.87%) over electrochemical treatment alone, suggesting limited additive benefit. Crucially, energy consumption analysis revealed a dramatic cost differential: nano-bubble treatment operated at approximately 2.2 US$/ton of sand, compared to US$27.83 & US$29.9/ton of sand, for the energy-intensive electrochemical and combined processes. This research demonstrates that while electrochemical methods offer superior cleanup performance, nano-bubble technology represents a highly cost-effective solution for large-scale applications where regulatory targets permit slightly lower efficiency, thereby offering a practical decision-making framework for sustainable shoreline restoration.

Graphical Abstract