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<p>A miniaturized and disposable 3D-printed electrochemical sensor was developed for the qualitative analysis of metal-containing paint test specimens relevant to cultural heritage studies. The device was fabricated using a conductive carbon black-poly(lactic acid) (CB-PLA) filament printed onto an acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) substrate. After printing, the sensor surface was electrochemically activated in 1.0&#xa0;mol L<sup>−1</sup> NaOH by applying a constant potential of +1.2&#xa0;V for 30&#xa0;min. Model paint test specimens composed of copper-based pigments (azurite, malachite, and verdigris), dispersed in four different binders (linseed oil, alkyd resin, acrylic resin, and rabbit glue), were subjected to an accelerated aging protocol corresponding to 161 years at 25&#xa0;°C. The specimens were subsequently analyzed by voltammetry of immobilized microparticles (VIMP), in which a small amount of the pigment-binder material was mechanically transferred to the electrode surface. The electrochemical response was markedly influenced by the nature of the binder, revealing distinct behaviors among the pigment-binder systems and underscoring the role of the organic matrix in modulating copper electroactivity. Despite these matrix effects, copper was successfully detected in all paint test specimens investigated. Owing to its high sensitivity, miniaturized and disposable configuration, low-cost fabrication, and compatibility with scalable 3D printing, the proposed sensor platform shows strong potential for on-site electrochemical analysis of paint materials in cultural heritage artefacts.</p> Graphical abstract <p></p>

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Disposable 3D-printed electrochemical sensor as a potential tool for on-site analysis of metal-based paint materials in cultural heritage studies

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

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  • 发表日期：

    2026年6月15日

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  • Lucas Puhl dos Santos,
  • Edson Roberto Santana,
  • João Paulo Winiarski,
  • Eduardo Constante Martins,
  • Juliana Priscila Dreyer,
  • Thiago Guimarães Costa,
  • Almir Spinelli,
  • Iolanda Cruz Vieira

摘要

A miniaturized and disposable 3D-printed electrochemical sensor was developed for the qualitative analysis of metal-containing paint test specimens relevant to cultural heritage studies. The device was fabricated using a conductive carbon black-poly(lactic acid) (CB-PLA) filament printed onto an acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) substrate. After printing, the sensor surface was electrochemically activated in 1.0 mol L−1 NaOH by applying a constant potential of +1.2 V for 30 min. Model paint test specimens composed of copper-based pigments (azurite, malachite, and verdigris), dispersed in four different binders (linseed oil, alkyd resin, acrylic resin, and rabbit glue), were subjected to an accelerated aging protocol corresponding to 161 years at 25 °C. The specimens were subsequently analyzed by voltammetry of immobilized microparticles (VIMP), in which a small amount of the pigment-binder material was mechanically transferred to the electrode surface. The electrochemical response was markedly influenced by the nature of the binder, revealing distinct behaviors among the pigment-binder systems and underscoring the role of the organic matrix in modulating copper electroactivity. Despite these matrix effects, copper was successfully detected in all paint test specimens investigated. Owing to its high sensitivity, miniaturized and disposable configuration, low-cost fabrication, and compatibility with scalable 3D printing, the proposed sensor platform shows strong potential for on-site electrochemical analysis of paint materials in cultural heritage artefacts.

Graphical abstract