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<p>Ramsar sites serve as vital guardians of ecosystem diversity, crucially mitigating the impacts of climate change and enabling sustainable management. However, challenges in monitoring and associated factors persist, as many studies narrowly focus on water extents, often overlooking climate change influences. The aim of this study is to establish a nuanced relationship between variations in water extent and environmental factors influencing these changes. The study analyzed variations across Ramsar sites in Pakistan, spanning from 2000 to 2023 using Landsat and MODIS datasets. Wetlands extents were analyzed using spectral indices approach into Random Forest (RF), achieving a Kappa score of 0.87. RF classified 8,305 lakes as small wetlands (&lt; 2.0 km<sup>2</sup>) in 2000, with Post 2010 and 2022 floods, the number surged to 28,598. Hamal and Manchar sites lost 14 km<sup>2</sup> and 10 km<sup>2</sup>, linked with 1.69&#xa0;°C temperature rise and 0.98&#xa0;mm/day evapotranspiration (ET). Manchar, NDWI dropped from 0.61 to 0.015 in 2023, correlating strongly (R<sup>2</sup> = 0.90) with ET and temperature. Keenjhar lost 3.05 km<sup>2</sup> with a 0.26&#xa0;°C decrease&#xa0;in temperature. Hadero (3.05 km<sup>2</sup> loss) showed a strong NDWI correlation (R<sup>2</sup> = 0.64) with 0.45&#xa0;°C temperature rise. Nareri Lagoon (68.97 km<sup>2</sup> loss) strongly correlated with ET 0.76&#xa0;mm/day (R<sup>2</sup> = 0.92), driven by a 1.84&#xa0;°C temperature rise. The study aligns with projections from the&#xa0;Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase (CMIP6), showing temperature increases of 1.5&#xa0;°C to 5.1&#xa0;°C and precipitation rises of 30% to 85% by the year 2100. This needs to be prioritized for the management and mitigation framework to safeguard wetland services. Prioritizing the integration of emerging monitoring solutions, such as Nature-based Solutions (NbS), is crucial for the revival of Ramsar Sites.</p>

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Spatial–temporal dynamics of evapotranspiration and its relationship with drivers of wetlands degradation

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2025年6月9日

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  • Hafsa Aeman,
  • Hong Shu,
  • Hamera Aisha,
  • Imran Nadeem,
  • Danish Raza

摘要

Ramsar sites serve as vital guardians of ecosystem diversity, crucially mitigating the impacts of climate change and enabling sustainable management. However, challenges in monitoring and associated factors persist, as many studies narrowly focus on water extents, often overlooking climate change influences. The aim of this study is to establish a nuanced relationship between variations in water extent and environmental factors influencing these changes. The study analyzed variations across Ramsar sites in Pakistan, spanning from 2000 to 2023 using Landsat and MODIS datasets. Wetlands extents were analyzed using spectral indices approach into Random Forest (RF), achieving a Kappa score of 0.87. RF classified 8,305 lakes as small wetlands (< 2.0 km2) in 2000, with Post 2010 and 2022 floods, the number surged to 28,598. Hamal and Manchar sites lost 14 km2 and 10 km2, linked with 1.69 °C temperature rise and 0.98 mm/day evapotranspiration (ET). Manchar, NDWI dropped from 0.61 to 0.015 in 2023, correlating strongly (R2 = 0.90) with ET and temperature. Keenjhar lost 3.05 km2 with a 0.26 °C decrease in temperature. Hadero (3.05 km2 loss) showed a strong NDWI correlation (R2 = 0.64) with 0.45 °C temperature rise. Nareri Lagoon (68.97 km2 loss) strongly correlated with ET 0.76 mm/day (R2 = 0.92), driven by a 1.84 °C temperature rise. The study aligns with projections from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase (CMIP6), showing temperature increases of 1.5 °C to 5.1 °C and precipitation rises of 30% to 85% by the year 2100. This needs to be prioritized for the management and mitigation framework to safeguard wetland services. Prioritizing the integration of emerging monitoring solutions, such as Nature-based Solutions (NbS), is crucial for the revival of Ramsar Sites.