Intercalation of multilayered Ti₃C₂T_x electrode doped with vanadium for highly sensitive electrochemical detection of dopamine in biological samples

The electrochemical detection characteristics of the layered Ti₃C₂T_x material were enhanced by modifying its surface. Ti₃C₂T_x is used as the Ti − F chemical bond weakens with increasing pH levels. Ti₃C₂T_x is alkalinized by KOH, and F is substituted for − OH. The surface hydroxyl groups can be eliminated by intercalating K⁺. This study elaborates on the hydrothermal production of vanadium-doped layered Ti₃C₂T_x nanosheets intercalated with K⁺. The development of a sensitive dopamine electrochemical sensor is outlined by intercalating a vanadium-doped multilayered K⁺ Ti₃C₂T_x electrode. The chemical, surface, and structural composition of the synthesized electrode for dopamine detection was investigated and confirmed. The sensor exhibits a linear range (1–10 µM), a low detection limit (8.4 nM), and a high sensitivity of 2.746 µAµM⁻¹cm⁻² under optimal electrochemical testing conditions. The sensor also demonstrates exceptional anti-interference capabilities and stability. The sensor was applied to detection of dopamine in (spiked) rat brains, human serum, and urine samples. This study introduces a novel approach by utilizing K⁺ intercalation of vanadium-doped Ti₃C₂T_x-based electrochemical sensors and an innovative method for dopamine detection. The dopamine detection revealed the potential of (V0.05) K⁺ Ti₃C₂T_x-GCE for practical application in pharmaceutical sample analysis.