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<p>Flavonoids are a significant class of secondary metabolites widely present in plants, playing a crucial role in their growth and development while also finding extensive applications in food and medicine. These compounds consist of two phenyl A- and B-rings and a heterocyclic C-ring, containing oxygen, forming a 15-carbon skeleton represented by C6–C3–C6 (diphenylpropane). Based on their molecular structure, degree of unsaturation, and oxidation state of the carbon ring, flavonoids are classified into several categories, including flavones, flavanones, isoflavones, flavonols, chalcones, and anthocyanins. Plants synthesize flavonoids through the phenylpropanoid pathway and transport them via three main mechanisms: membrane transport proteins, vesicles, and glutathione S-transferase conjugates. Flavonoids mediate various biological activities in plants, protecting them from abiotic stresses (e.g., heavy metals, drought, salinity, UV radiation, heat, and cold) and biotic threats (e.g., bacteria, fungi, and plant-parasitic nematodes). This review explores the distribution, biosynthesis, isolation, characterization, and subclasses of flavonoids. Additionally, it discusses the multi-level regulation of flavonoid biosynthesis, including transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms, as well as other regulatory factors such as light, low temperature, sugar availability, and nutrient deficiency. Finally, the interaction of flavonoids with plant growth regulators (PGRs) is examined.</p>

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Comprehensive Insights into Flavonoids: Biosynthesis, Stress Modulation, and Plant Growth Regulation

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2025年8月15日

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  • Zeba Parveen,
  • Sameen Zaidi,
  • Andrzej Bajguz,
  • Yamshi Arif,
  • Shamsul Hayat

摘要

Flavonoids are a significant class of secondary metabolites widely present in plants, playing a crucial role in their growth and development while also finding extensive applications in food and medicine. These compounds consist of two phenyl A- and B-rings and a heterocyclic C-ring, containing oxygen, forming a 15-carbon skeleton represented by C6–C3–C6 (diphenylpropane). Based on their molecular structure, degree of unsaturation, and oxidation state of the carbon ring, flavonoids are classified into several categories, including flavones, flavanones, isoflavones, flavonols, chalcones, and anthocyanins. Plants synthesize flavonoids through the phenylpropanoid pathway and transport them via three main mechanisms: membrane transport proteins, vesicles, and glutathione S-transferase conjugates. Flavonoids mediate various biological activities in plants, protecting them from abiotic stresses (e.g., heavy metals, drought, salinity, UV radiation, heat, and cold) and biotic threats (e.g., bacteria, fungi, and plant-parasitic nematodes). This review explores the distribution, biosynthesis, isolation, characterization, and subclasses of flavonoids. Additionally, it discusses the multi-level regulation of flavonoid biosynthesis, including transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms, as well as other regulatory factors such as light, low temperature, sugar availability, and nutrient deficiency. Finally, the interaction of flavonoids with plant growth regulators (PGRs) is examined.