Evaluation of the biocompatibility, osteoinductivity, and antibacterial capacity of a carboxymethylcellulose, chitosan, and akermanite scaffold

A sustainable hybrid scaffold based on carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), chitosan, and akermanite (Ak) was developed to investigate the composition-dependent modulation of physicochemical, mechanical, and biological properties for bone tissue engineering applications. The scaffolds were fabricated via freeze-drying, using citric acid as an interaction mediator within the polymeric network and incorporating 10 or 30 wt% Ak into a 1:1 CMC-chitosan matrix. Structural characterization by FTIR, XRD, and thermal analysis confirmed the successful incorporation of akermanite while preserving the integrity of the polymeric network, which was predominantly stabilized through physical interactions. SEM analysis revealed interconnected porous structures with an average pore size of approximately 140 ± 25 μm. Distinct composition-dependent behaviors were observed after incorporating the ceramic. The scaffold containing 10 wt% Ak exhibited higher swelling capacity and reduced structural stability, whereas the 30 wt% Ak scaffold showed improved compressive strength, enhanced structural preservation, and more stable pH behavior during degradation. All scaffolds exhibited antibacterial activity against S. aureus and E. coli and maintained high cell viability (> 85%) in human dental pulp mesenchymal stem cells. In addition, calcium-rich deposits observed after osteogenic induction suggest the hybrid system’s potential to support mineralized tissue responses. Overall, the results demonstrate that akermanite incorporation modulates the balance between hydration, structural stability, mechanical behavior, and biological performance in hybrid CMC-chitosan scaffolds, supporting their potential for non-load-bearing bone tissue engineering applications.