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<p>Cellulose substrates are widely used in sustainable material systems but exhibit inherently hydrophilic and oleophilic behavior, limiting their surface functionality. In this work, a fluorine-free amphiphobic polymer coating system based on natural wax–chitosan emulsions was developed to modify cellulose surfaces. Beeswax, carnauba wax, and candelilla wax were emulsified using chitosan as a biopolymeric stabilizer and applied onto cellulose paper at controlled coating thicknesses (30&#xa0;μm and 120&#xa0;μm), followed by drying at 45&#xa0;°C and 90&#xa0;°C. The ternary wax–chitosan formulation exhibited the most effective amphiphobic performance, increasing the water contact angle from &lt; 10° to 125 ± 2.53° and the oil contact angle from 9 ± 1.18° to 88 ± 2.05°. Spectroscopic, thermal, and morphological analyses demonstrated that elevated drying temperatures promoted wax melting and redistribution, enabling alkyl chains to shield cellulose hydroxyl groups, while chitosan formed a continuous polymeric film within the paper pores. The synergistic interaction between wax crystallization and chitosan film formation governed the dual water- and oil-repellent behavior. This study highlights a bio-based polymer coating strategy for imparting amphiphobicity to cellulose substrates without the use of fluorinated polymers.</p> Graphical Abstract <p></p>

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Bio-based fluorine-free amphiphobic polymer coatings using wax–chitosan emulsions for cellulose surfaces

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年3月30日

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  • Nor Adilla Sahirah Nordin,
  • Rahul Dev Bairwan,
  • Azniwati Abd Aziz,
  • Mazlan Ibrahim,
  • Tay Guan Seng,
  • Mohamad Haafiz Mohamad Kassim

摘要

Cellulose substrates are widely used in sustainable material systems but exhibit inherently hydrophilic and oleophilic behavior, limiting their surface functionality. In this work, a fluorine-free amphiphobic polymer coating system based on natural wax–chitosan emulsions was developed to modify cellulose surfaces. Beeswax, carnauba wax, and candelilla wax were emulsified using chitosan as a biopolymeric stabilizer and applied onto cellulose paper at controlled coating thicknesses (30 μm and 120 μm), followed by drying at 45 °C and 90 °C. The ternary wax–chitosan formulation exhibited the most effective amphiphobic performance, increasing the water contact angle from < 10° to 125 ± 2.53° and the oil contact angle from 9 ± 1.18° to 88 ± 2.05°. Spectroscopic, thermal, and morphological analyses demonstrated that elevated drying temperatures promoted wax melting and redistribution, enabling alkyl chains to shield cellulose hydroxyl groups, while chitosan formed a continuous polymeric film within the paper pores. The synergistic interaction between wax crystallization and chitosan film formation governed the dual water- and oil-repellent behavior. This study highlights a bio-based polymer coating strategy for imparting amphiphobicity to cellulose substrates without the use of fluorinated polymers.

Graphical Abstract